Final Examination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Final Examination - Essay Example On this basis, the performance evaluation process will help in identifying the various roles of an employee, and the desired results/ outcomes of their duties within the organization. This process helps in communicating the desired outcome of their duties, and how the organization will measure their efficiency in meeting its objectives (Fried and James, 2002). This process is also important because it establishes the progress of an employee under consideration. On this basis, the periodic performance evaluation process makes it possible for the organization to provide continuous coaching, training and education to the employee under consideration. This will help in developing the various skills of the employees; as a result, the organization will have a highly talented and skillful individual to work for it (Fried and James, 2002). There are a variety of good rating criteria for performance appraisals. One of the best methods to rate employees is the use of the BARS, which stands for behavioral anchored rating scale. This method allows a manager or s supervisor to provide a description on the employee’s behavior in relation to their teamwork, delivery of results, leadership skills and communications. This type of rating, gives managers the ability to provide their own reasons as to why they rate a particular employee in the particular manner. On this basis, this type of rating has an effect in reducing errors that managers can create while rating their employees (Fried and James, 2002). This is because this type of rating defines the dimension of a job that an employee does. This type of rating also identifies the various areas that are needed for training and development. However, the only disadvantage with this method of rating is that it is time consuming to develop. In carrying out a performance review, a manager/ supervisor will need data. To collect data, a manager needs to involve the employees by asking them to submit a self-review of themselves. This gives employees a sense of control, and an opportunity to be heard by the management under consideration (Fried and James, 2002). A self review will give the employee an opportunity to remind the management of some of their important contributions. The manager will also collect data/ information from other stakeholders of the business organization. This includes customers who might be asked to review the performances of an employee under consideration. Other methods of data collection include observing the performance of the employee by the organization, for purposes of recording their strengths and weaknesses. There are four main types of rating errors. This includes (Fried and James, 2002); Halo effect Halo effect involves the influence of an individual’s character based on the overall impression of the individual under consideration. Personal bias This involves rating an individual based on whether the supervisor likes him or not. Contrast effect. Contrast effects in volve making a comparison between the employees work performance, as opposed to the established standard set by the organization. Distributional errors. This involves generalized ratings, such as good, below average, excellent, without basing the rating criteria on an accurate data or knowledge.

University and Research Essay Example for Free

University and Research Essay Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Having spent 40 years in universities, I have had sufficient time to consider some of the idiosyncrasies, foibles and problems of these academic institutions. The purpose of this editorial is to discuss the current state of university research and explain why I find some aspects of the current situation disturbing. Changes that started during the second half of the 20th century and that have continued into the 21st threaten to bring about fundamental changes in the nature of universities. Some of the changes are commendable, for example, the large expansion in the proportion of the population attending universities, at least in the richer nations. Other trends are disturbing, especially the increasing tendency of governments and industry to view universities as engines for short-term economic gain. While universities certainly cannot ignore the context in which they function and the needs of society, responding purely to short-term economic considerations threatens to subvert the very nature of universities and some of the benefits they provide to society. So what exactly is a university and what is its purpose? I much prefer the Oxford English Dictionary definition of the word â€Å"university† to some of the more utilitarian definitions in other dictionaries. The Oxford definition reads, in part, â€Å"whole body of teachers and scholars engaged in the higher branches of learning. † Thus, it is the community of faculty and students that is the essence of a university. The higher branches of learning in which teachers and scholars engage have 2 important products: the educated minds that are essential for the well-being of society, and new knowledge and ideas. Some of that new knowledge will enrich society by producing economic growth, directly or indirectly, but the benefits of new knowledge go far beyond economic gain. Universities have always been subjected to outside influences. The oldest European university, the University of Bologna, has existed at least since the 1080s. Some time before 1222, about 1000 students left Bologna and founded a new university in Padua because of â€Å"the grievous offence that was brought to bear on their academic liberties and the failure to acknowledge the privileges solemnly granted to teachers and students. †1 The outside interference came from the Roman Catholic Church, and, for several centuries, Padua was home to the only university in Europe where non-Catholics could get a university education. Both Bologna and Padua were student-controlled universities with students electing the professors and fixing their salaries. However, in spite of marked differences, there are similarities between what happened then and what is happening today, with important outside influences — then the dogma of religion, now the dogma of business — threatening to change the activities of the community of teachers and scholars. The seeds of what is happening now were sown in the years following World War II. Before the war the most important influence on a faculty member was probably the departmental chair, who in those days had power to influence in an important way what went on in the department. Nonetheless, a faculty member would have had access to departmental resources and would not necessarily have required outside research funding (although such funding was sometimes available from private foundations). The mechanism of funding research, and the amount of money available for research, changed greatly in the postwar years. In 1945, Vannevar Bushs landmark report to President Harry Truman, Science the Endless Frontier,2 had an important influence on university research. In this report, Bush stated, â€Å"The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and research institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the wellsprings of knowledge and understanding. As long as they are vigorous and healthy and their scientists are free to pursue the truth wherever it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in industry, or elsewhere. † Bush supported the idea that the US government should provide strong financial support for university research, but also supported the idea that the individual investigator should be the main determinant of the topics for investigation, with statements such as â€Å"Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of free intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. †2 In the latter half of the last century, many countries adopted the model of granting councils, which used a system based on peer review to distribute money for investigator-initiated research. This model has been a great success, but it has also contributed to important changes in universities. Much more money has been available to support medical research, basic science research and engineering research than has been available for the social sciences or arts. Thus, decisions about support for different disciplines devolved from the universities to governments, who decided on the budgets of their various grant-giving bodies. Also, individual researchers who were successful in obtaining grants no longer depended as much on departmental facilities. In my opinion, this not only weakened the power of departmental chairs but also decreased collegiality within departments. With increased enrolments, as a university education became accessible to a greater proportion of the population, and an increased need for infrastructure for the larger student population and for complex research equipment, administrators became more concerned about sources of funding and consequently more detached from the faculty. There is always a tendency for senior academic administrators to speak and behave as though they were the university (when of course they are there to serve the community of teachers and scholars). This is of course a normal human trait, no different from the tendency of politicians to forget that they are elected to serve the people. However, this increasing detachment of senior university administrators from the faculty has facilitated the erosion of collegiality within departments and universities. The individual personalities of university faculty probably also facilitated this change. I learned recently, when looking at the literature on personality, that an inverse correlation between intelligence and conscientiousness has been demonstrated in a number of studies (see, for example, Moutafi et al3). Thus, it might be more than just my paranoia leading me to believe that the small proportion of university faculty who lack conscientiousness and collegiality is larger than in some other walks of life. The erosion of collegiality is not a matter of great significance, except that it probably played a role in making researchers more open to the efforts of governments to transform them into entrepreneurs. The most recent and possibly the most important change in university research resulted from the push by governments to commercialize the results of such research. In the United States, the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980 encouraged universities to license to private industry discoveries made with federal funds. 4 The push by governments for commercialization of new knowledge grew during the 1980s and 1990s and continues to have an important influence on universities. Recently, Lord Sainsbury, the science and innovation minister in the United Kingdom, boasted that there had been a cultural change in universities there, which has resulted in a substantial increase in university spin-offs. 5 In 2002 the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada entered an agreement with the government to double the amount of research performed by these institutions and to triple their commercialization performance by 2010. 6 Although this agreement was reached in the absence of any broad consultation with the faculty who are supposed to commercialize their work, the universities seem to be well on track to achieve this objective, with a 126% increase in revenues from licence royalties between 1999 and 2001. 7Most major universities now have a technology transfer office, and at many universities success in commercialization is taken into account when faculty are considered for tenure. Will there come a time when success in commercialization carries the same weight as (or more weight than) teaching and research in the awarding of tenure? The end result of all the changes discussed above is that individual faculty members have become much more like entrepreneurs whose main allegiance is to the maintenance or growth of their own research programs and not infrequently to the commercialization of their research. The researcher exploring Vannevar Bushs â€Å"endless frontier† could be considered the modern equivalent of the homesteader taming the seemingly endless frontier of the 19th century American West. 8 This is not necessarily detrimental if a new generation of university research entrepreneurs provides the new knowledge that will benefit patients and society. However, the change in culture that made university faculty more like entrepreneurs also made them more open to the desire of governments to make them entrepreneurs in the economic sense. Although the nature of universities has been changing, there was no threat to the fundamental nature of universities until the drive for commercialization began. A recent report of the Canadian Association of University Teachers9 states that university administrators have been â€Å"building increasingly hierarchical management structures† that â€Å"place the future of academic medicine in danger. † The reports main concern is that â€Å"incentives to create commercializable products push economic concerns, rather than scientific and ethical considerations, to the forefront. †9In the fields of biologic psychiatry and behavioural neuroscience the emphasis on  commercial applications has already, to some extent, moved research priorities away from an emphasis on mental well-being to an emphasis on commercial products. There are many examples of this shift. For example, more research is being carried out on antidepressant drugs than on psychotherapy, even though in mild to moderate depression (the majority of cases) drugs and psychotherapy are approximately equal in efficacy. There is increasing evidence for the efficacy of exercise10,11 and fish oils12,13 in the treatment and prevention of depression. However, these strategies receive much less attention than antidepressant drugs. Even an established antidepressant treatment such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe)14 receives little attention. Searching the abstracts of the 2004 meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, I found 179 with the key word â€Å"antidepressant† and only 4 with the key word â€Å"S-adenosylmethionine,† and none of those 4 was concerned with the antidepressant action of SAMe. SAMe is a major methyl donor and seems to work in a fundamentally different way from any product being investigated by drug companies. Surely we could expect that an antidepressant acting through a different mechanism would be a popular topic of investigation. However, SAMe is a natural product and not of commercial interest. Similarly, insights into what exercise or fish oils do to the brain may provide important insights into the pathophysiology of depression and its treatment, but these subjects receive little attention. Many basic science researchers investigating the mechanisms of antidepressants produced by drug companies do not receive funding from those companies. However, enough are lured by drug company research funds into working on topics of interest to the companies to significantly influence what are fashionable topics of research. Laboratories with funding from industry can often afford more trainees, who may then adopt a more industry-centred approach in their own research. While the availability of funds from industry has certainly influenced research, the pressure on university faculty to commercialize the results of their research will undoubtedly cause even greater distortion in the areas of research that are most popular. Granting agencies have increasingly tried to foster research in neglected areas by allocating funds to specific areas of research and requesting applications in those areas. Although this approach is certainly necessary, it has not done much to alter the effects of drug company money on research output. Also, in some ways it moves research even further away from the ideal in Vannevar Bushs report that â€Å"Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of free intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. †2 This model was notably successful in the last half of the 20th century, but it may not survive the pressure to commercialize. While there is still much scope for curiosity-driven research, the curiosity of researchers is likely to be aligned increasingly with the interests of drug companies. As mentioned above, a cultural change has accompanied the increasing commercialization of university research. The pressure to commercialize has been critiqued in some quarters, but many university faculty have nonetheless embraced commercialization, or at least remained unconcerned about it. Are we far from a time when a researcher without a patent that is being commercialized will be regarded in the same way as those who do not publish regularly in the top journals? And how long will it be before governments make commercialization a mandate of granting councils and a requirement for the majority of grants? A fascination with the workings of the brain and how it can malfunction in mental illness is the usual motivator for researchers in neuroscience and psychiatry research. As a result, curiosity-driven research will always tend to serve the best interests of patients. Although research driven by commercial interests will certainly benefit psychiatric patients in some ways, it cannot serve their overall needs, as it is much too narrowly focused. The designation of funds by granting agencies for specific neglected topics will help but is unlikely to produce any large changes in the direction of research. Thus, the biggest losers from the pressure to commercialize will be psychiatric patients. In addition I am concerned whether students who are trained to focus on the short-term commercial implications of their research will be able to maintain the breadth of vision that is a characteristic of the majority of creative researchers. Changes due to pressure from governments to commercialize are not limited to researchers. The increased emphasis on commercialization in universities has in some ways distorted the perceptions of senior university administrators about the purpose of the institutions. For example, there seems to be a lack of concern about some of the sources of funds that universities receive. Universities now hold patents on many life-saving drugs. These patents sometimes limit access to the drugs, particularly in low-income countries. 15 In Canada, one-quarter of the faculties of medicine receive funding from the tobacco industry. 16 Perhaps a suitable future definition of a university will be a â€Å"whole body of teachers and scholars engaged in turning ideas into profit. † In 13th century Italy the response to interference by the Roman Catholic Church in the work of scholars was a move to another location to escape the interference. In the 21st century that option is not available even to the minority who are concerned about the drive to commercialize. However, the picture is not entirely bleak. Charitable foundations will remain immune to commercial interests. In addition, even though charitable foundations will probably remain relatively small players in the funding of research, there are promising signs. For example, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, created in 2000, has an endowment of about US$27 billion and is striving to use its money for the benefit of humankind in areas neglected by governments. This foundation is not involved in psychiatric research, but its focus on preventive approaches may help to direct interest to that important area. Research on prevention in psychiatry is still in its infancy and will certainly remain that way if short-term commercial considerations stay paramount. However, charitable foundations cannot be expected to have any large effect on the change in university culture brought about by the drive to commercialize. Although I would like to be able to end this editorial on a more hopeful note, I am concerned about these cultural changes, and I do not see any solution. Still, one lesson from history is that the communities of teachers and scholars making up universities have adapted to many changes over the centuries without changing the fundamental nature of universities, and they will surely continue to do so. I am just not sure how. Go to: - Footnotes Competing interests: None declared. Correspondence to: Dr. Simon N. Young, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, 1033 Pine Ave. W, Montreal QC H3A 1A1; fax 514 398-4370; simon. [emailprotected] ca Go to: - References 1. History. Padua (Italy): Universita Degli Studi di Padova. Available:www. unipd. it/en/university/history. htm (accessed 2004 Dec 13). 2. Bush V. Science the endless frontier. A report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, July 1945. Washington: US Government Printing Office; 1945. Available: www. nsf. gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945. htm (accessed 2004 Dec 13). 3. Moutafi J, Furnham A, Paltiel L. Why is conscientiousness negatively correlated with intelligence? Pers Individ Differ 2004;37:1013-22. 4. Thursby JG, Thursby MC. Intellectual property. University licensing and the Bayh-Dole Act. Science2003;301:1052. [PubMed] 5. Sainsbury L. A cultural change in UK universities [editorial]. Science2002;296:1929. [PubMed] 6. Allan Rock welcomes framework on federally funded university research [press release]. Toronto: Industry Canada; 2002 Nov 19 [modified 2003 Jun 16]. Available:www. ic. gc. ca/cmb/welcomeic. nsf/558d636590992942852564880052155b/85256a220056c2a485256c76004c7d44 (accessed 2004 Dec 13). 7. Berkowitz P. Spinning off research: AUCC sets new tool to measure universities commercialization performance. Univ Aff [serial online] 2004;June/July. Available:www. universityaffairs. ca/issues/2004/junejuly/print/spinningoff. html (accessed 2004 Dec 13). 8. Kennedy D. Enclosing the research commons [editorial]. Science2001;294:2249. [PubMed] 9. Welch P, Cass CE, Guyatt G, Jackson AC, Smith D. Defending medicine: clinical faculty and academic freedom. Report of the Canadian Association of University Teachers (CAUT) Task Force on Academic Freedom for Faculty at University-Affiliated Health Care Institutions. Ottawa: Canadian Association of University Teachers; 2004 Nov. Available:www. caut. ca/en/issues/academicfreedom/DefendingMedicine. pdf (accessed 2004 Dec 21). 10. Salmon P. Effects of physical exercise on anxiety, depression, and sensitivity to stress: a unifying theory. Clin Psychol Rev2001;21:33-61. [PubMed] 11. Depression: management of depression in primary and secondary care. Clinical guideline 23. London (UK): National Institute for Clinical Excellence; 2004 Dec. Available:http://www. nice. org. uk/pdf/CG023NICEguideline. pdf (accessed 2005 Mar 8). 12. Nemets B, Stahl Z, Belmaker RH. Addition of omega-3 fatty acid.

The Key to the Protection Against Tyranny in the American Constitution

Tyranny riddles many forms of government, such as oligarchy, absolute monarchy, dictatorship, autocracy, and totalitarianism. In May of 1787, delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia gathered to create a stronger central government -- while avoiding the tyranny that so many other forms of government had allowed for. James Madison, of one those very same delegates, defined tyranny as â€Å"The accumulation of all powers...in the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many...† in Federalist Paper #47. The key to the protection against tyranny in the American Constitution was the way in which power was divided. The Constitution guarded against tyranny by making provisions for federalism, the separation of powers, checks and balances of power, and fairly equal congressional power. In the Constitution, central and state governments received power that was shared and split in a federalist system, preventing tyranny of one over the other. Madison put forward his idea of federalism in Federalist Paper #51. â€Å"...the power surrendered by the people is first divided between two distinct governments...The different governments will each control each other, at the same time each will be controlled by itself† (Doc. A). A Venn diagram derived from the Constitution shows that the central government controlled national affairs such as war, foreign trade, and foreign relations, and states controlled internal affairs such as establishing public services and regulating in-state businesses. The shared powers included taxes, loans, and laws. Despite Madison’s bias towards the federalist system (rarely does one truly attack one’s own political treatise within it) in his quote, the apportioning of powers shows that neither the central or st... ...ny of a branch by setting controls on each branch set by the other branches. Fairly equalizing representation in Congress protected the power of small states overall while preserving that of larger states. However, the framers may have mistakenly given the power to prevent tyranny to the government, not the people. The framers crafted a delicate system, but one that focused on creating strong inter-governmental relations. Since the first Constitution was drafted, power slowly began shifting to the national government. If the branches wished to control more, it would not matter if they controlled each other because they would all move together. The focus on creating a government as far away as possible from despotic in a group of white, mostly wealthy, and educated landowners may have prevented the creation of the sort of tyranny-free system the people wished for.

Nymphs Reply to the Shepherd

The nymphs reply to the shepherd is a pastoral poem about how a nymph responded to the love being asked by a shepherd. This is in reference to an ideal world which the nymph requires for them to be able to love each other. All throughout the poem, the nymph’s response to the love being given by the shepherd was all about reject. She could have loved the shepherd, if only they’d be in a different situation that what they are in that time. It is a poem about hope, yet in the end, the shepherd would just lose hope, as the nymph requires a very ideal setting for their love to flourish. One aspect which was emphasized in this poem is the inevitability of change, with reference to aging and death. Here, the nymph tells the shepherd that their love could have been possible if it would be eternal, and would exist all throughout time. However, just like the fading of flowers, the fancy of spring and sorrow of fall, things between them would surely change. The shepherd would grow old whilst the nymph would remain young with nature. At the end of the poem, the nymph directly stated that if only youth could last and love would still breed, as well as joy would not fade and none of them will age, then the nymph could stay with the shepherd and be his love. The poem uses the iambic tetrameter, wherein each line contains four iambs or two syllables which are the units of rhythm. The first syllable of this unstressed while the second syllable is stressed. Instead of using metaphors, the poem uses similes to describe one thing or attribute it to another. This is effectively used to describe the constraints why the nymph could not love the shepherd back.

Personal Statement My Goals and Why Essay

This paper introduces you to my world. It explains my professional goals, including why I am pursuing my Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN). This paper addresses my current role as a registered nurse (RN) at St Mary’s hospital on the Neuro Trauma Intensive Care Unit (NTICU). I will explain how I got where I am today. I will inform you of my understanding of importance of integrity. I will express my importance of how ethics play a role in my life and how Fowler (2010) broadened my understanding of ethics. Lastly, I will cover why professional writing and communication is so important to the profession of nursing. Keywords: Bachelor of Science in Nursing, registered nurse, neuro trauma intensive care unit Personal Statement My Goals and Why I Am Pursuing My BSN My long term goal goes farther than just accruing my BSN. I potentially want to acquire my Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist (CRNA). I need to have achieved my BSN to apply for CRNA School. Regardless, if I planned on furthering my degree, I feel a BSN in needed in my profession as a nurse. A BSN opens doorways to climbing the clinical ladder, more leadership roles, and increasing responsibilities. A nurses’ back is quick to wear out doing constant patient care, having a higher degree will give me more options in my career. I currently work at St. Mary’s hospital on the NTICU. I spend my nights assessing my critically ill patients, carrying out nursing care, communicating with doctors and other nurses, and constantly using my critical thinking skills. New trauma patients I find most interesting. The adrenaline starts flowing and the fight and flight response takes over. Often in these moments I surprise myself. The knowledge horded in the back of my brain and life saving skills take over. This makes for an awarding and self gratifying night. Not all traumas end the way we intend them to. We are often reminded we are not the ones in totally control. I love my job and my current position but eventually I will have to move on. I graduated from St. Mary’s School of Nursing in December 2011. Previously I was enlisted in the United States Army. I served four years as a combat medic. I left for the army right out of high school. This decision was based on the fact I was living on my own and did not have any guidance in my life and knew this decision would set me off in the right direction. Not only did my enlistment open my eyes to the medical field but I also gained my values which I have displayed thru my life. The seven core values I was thought were as follows: loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service, honor, integrity, and personal courage. I would not be where I am today without the army in my life. This experience was the molding of who I am today. My service to the army instilled my beliefs, morals, and ethics. Integrity and ethics play a valuable in my everyday life at home and at work. Integrity to me is to do what is right and expected of me, legally and morally. To understand integrity I had to understand my own beliefs and morals. The code of ethics for nurses is the profession’s public expression of those values, duties, and commitments (Fowler 2010). To uphold integrity and ethics to my work place I have be familiar with hospital policies, code of conduct, and my scope of practice. I have to educate myself on changes, make sure my certifications are up to date, and constantly continue my education. I have learned thru my experience as I strengthen these qualities I acquired more trust from others and have more trust in myself. Professional writing and communication is so important to the profession of nursing because in my profession it is used in many ways, unclear communication leaves room for error and all treatment is carried out by communication. As a nurse I communicate to coworkers, doctors, patients, and family members. I receive orders from doctors written and verbally, it is important I understand exactly what he is ordering. Written medical orders have their own universal formula to leave room for minimal mistakes. Verbal orders should be wrote down and read back to the physician. Along with receiving orders as a nurse I am the physician eyes, ears, and brain when they are not around. I have to be able to pick up on changes, new data, and intervene appropriately. I have to paint a clear and concise picture for the physician so that treatment can be done. I also communicate with the patient and family so that I have a clear understanding of what treatment my patient does or does not want. In my communication with the patient and family a lot of times I have to step out of the medical profession and explain things in different terms, so that they can develop a clear understanding. Communication with my coworkers is in a clear, respectful, and constant manner. I always keep my coworkers involved in patients as well as where I stand on finishing my tasks, so that I may be of help to others. I am beginning my journey to acquire my BSN and tackle my lifelong goals. I hope to by the end of this journey become a CRNA. With my understanding of the importance of integrity and ethics in my profession, and the promise to carry them out I should not have any problems meeting my goal. I have an understanding for the importance of communication as well and will continue to practice it as well. Overall, I want to continue to better myself and my knowledge in all aspects and know that if I apply myself thru this course and other I will gain exactly that. Reference Fowler, M. D. M. (2010). Guide to the code of ethics for nurses. (p. xiii). Siliver Spring, MD: American Nurses Association.

Free Essays on Gift Giving in Modern Business

The Ethics of ‘Gift Giving’ in modern business is one of the hottest topics of debate. It seems that many problems arise every day that seem to have some affiliation with unethical gift giving. One of the prime examples is found in the sports world. While many would like not to believe it, college athletics are very much a lucrative business. Because of the demand for world-class athletes, many organizations find it necessary to attract their prospects by methods legal as well as illegal. One of the methods used most often is of course the ploy of gift giving. So much of this is done undercover that it is hard to get an accurate statistic, but some say that gift giving is common in one way or another at almost every major collegiate school. This is an alarming comment because along with gift giving comes the possibility of huge penalties. These include huge fines that are handed out as well as suspension from collegiate sports activities and also firings. But to many institutions it seems like a necessary option to pursue. Another Example of gift giving is found as high as our US government, if that were much of a surprise. Mike Espy, the former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture was accused of accepting gifts from the companies that he was supposed to regulate. It is obvious from this incident that the acceptance of illegal gifts is not a light topic. Regulation of agriculture is a very important task that needs to be taken seriously for the safety of our nations foods, if something as simple as gift giving can affect that safety than it is easy to see why we need regulations on it. Because gift giving is becoming common is the average work place, many companies are now trying to set limits on their gift giving policies to try and tame down the amount of ‘buttering up’ that can be done by other parties. In many incidents the monetary limit for gifts is being set at 20-50$, this makes it less likely that one empl... Free Essays on Gift Giving in Modern Business Free Essays on Gift Giving in Modern Business The Ethics of ‘Gift Giving’ in modern business is one of the hottest topics of debate. It seems that many problems arise every day that seem to have some affiliation with unethical gift giving. One of the prime examples is found in the sports world. While many would like not to believe it, college athletics are very much a lucrative business. Because of the demand for world-class athletes, many organizations find it necessary to attract their prospects by methods legal as well as illegal. One of the methods used most often is of course the ploy of gift giving. So much of this is done undercover that it is hard to get an accurate statistic, but some say that gift giving is common in one way or another at almost every major collegiate school. This is an alarming comment because along with gift giving comes the possibility of huge penalties. These include huge fines that are handed out as well as suspension from collegiate sports activities and also firings. But to many institutions it seems like a necessary option to pursue. Another Example of gift giving is found as high as our US government, if that were much of a surprise. Mike Espy, the former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture was accused of accepting gifts from the companies that he was supposed to regulate. It is obvious from this incident that the acceptance of illegal gifts is not a light topic. Regulation of agriculture is a very important task that needs to be taken seriously for the safety of our nations foods, if something as simple as gift giving can affect that safety than it is easy to see why we need regulations on it. Because gift giving is becoming common is the average work place, many companies are now trying to set limits on their gift giving policies to try and tame down the amount of ‘buttering up’ that can be done by other parties. In many incidents the monetary limit for gifts is being set at 20-50$, this makes it less likely that one empl...

Essay Sample on Wild Birds and Feeding Them

Essay Sample on Wild Birds and Feeding Them Feeding or watching of backyard birds or wild birds is popularly known as birding. It is one of the popular outdoor activities of people all around the world. Parks, farms and other peaceful areas have become popular habitat of these wild birds everywhere. Growing watching and feeding these feathered friends helps children as well as others to explore the fascinating features of nature at their doorstep itself. Bird lovers try to attract variety of wild birds to the courtyards by offering quality feeding stuff in their premises. The kind of food offered and the hygiene of the bird feeder are crucial factors in the matter of attracting and keeping wild birds. The variety and number of birds visiting the campus also depends upon the duration, attention and consistency given shown by the bird watchers to their colorful guests. Watching, identifying and classifying of wild birds visiting the backyard oasis will help learn about wild birds since they are popularly grouped on the basis of physical specialties like size, feather color, beak shape and so on. Feeding the wild birds throughout the year will help attract strange varieties of migrating wild birds that belong to lands of extreme climates. Maintaining small insects and bugs in the garden will help those wild guests stay in the garden since they love to have spiders, mosquitoes, worms and ants. Another important thing which makes wild birds stay around a place is the availability of fresh water in every season without any break. However interesting wild bird varieties like humming birds can be attracted to the habitat by offering nectar, red geraniums, coral bells and similar stuff. Providing a shallow ‘birdbath’ will really thrill the chirping guests since it will provide them a relief in the hot weather. Trees, shrubs or similar vegetation and an artificial setup of small waterfall producing a dripping sound will present a heaven to those friendly guests. Offering a calm, noiseless cool habitation will make those little ones stay anywhere since safety and food to gether defines their life.

Were in the Pink

Were in the Pink Were in the Pink Were in the Pink By Maeve Maddox Look up the word pink in the Merriam-Webster Online Unabridged Dictionary, and youll find 13 entries for the single word, and 175 two-word entries in which one of the words is pink. An impressive legacy for a word that entered the language in 1573 as the name of a plant and not a color. The plant known as a pink has the Latin name dianthus. About 300 species of dianthus exist. The carnation belongs to this family. No one is quite certain as to how dianthus plants came to be called pinks. Its thought that the name derives from the jagged edges of the flower that look as if theyve been pinked. As a verb, pink has been in English since 1307 with the sense of pierce, stab, make holes in. Its from this verb that pinking shears get their name. pinking shears scissors with a saw-toothed inner edge. Theyre used to cut fabric in order to create a zig zag edge that wont ravel. Although dianthus flowers can be other shades, pink must have been the most familiar to have given us the word we now use to mean pale red. Pink-colored, i.e. colored like a pink, is recorded in 1681. Pink as an adjective of color, meaning pale rose color, is recorded in 1733. NOTE: The practice of adding colored to words that already signifiy a specific color is a solecism that seems to be gaining ground. For example, it makes perfect sense to speak of a Pepto-Bismol-colored house. It is absurd to speak of red-colored area on a map. The area is red. It is a red area. The word pinkie, as in pinkie finger, derives neither from the word for the color, nor from the word meaning to pierce. Apparently it comes from the Dutch diminutive pinkje. Dutch pink means little. Pinkie entered Scots dialect in the early 1800s with the meaning little finger. Scots speakers use pink to mean a small gleam of light, as in the expression the pink of the evening, i.e.,late afternoon, early evening. Another use of pink without the color sense is the term fox hunters use for the red coats some of them wear. These hunting coats, although bright red, are called pinks. One explanation is that the first ones were created by a tailor called Pinque. No evidence exists to support this example of folk etymology. A more believable reason to call the red coats pinks has to do with the expression to be in the pink. Nowadays, to be in the pink, usually means to be in top physical condition, but in Shakespeares time, pink meant something like epitome or pinnacle of perfection. The dianthus was much admired by Queen Elizabeth I and her courtiers. They may have considered it to be the perfect flower, beautiful to look at and delightful to smell. When Mercutio (Romeo and Juliet, 1597), says I am the very pinke of curtesie, he means that he is is not just courteous, but a model of courtesy. Thackeray (1811-1863), uses the expresssion in the very pink of the mode to mean at the very height of fashion. Charles Dickens (1812-1870) called an Italian town hed visited the very pink of hideousness and squalid misery. The appearance of a rider in the signature red hunting coat is very dashing, almost as dazzling as a U.S. Marine in full dress uniform. Its quite possible that such a rider in his scarlet coat was said to be in the pink of fashion and the expression dwindled to the noun pink for such a coat. Here are some other expressions that have evolved from the word pink with its meaning of pale red. pink-eye the common name for an inflammation of the membrane of the inner eyelid. Its extremely contagious. Some animals also suffer from it. The term was first recorded in 1882. pinko a term of political contempt and mistrust applied to persons who hold liberal views regarding government and economics. Red is a color associated with revolution. Presumably pinkos are not quite as extreme as communists, who are often called reds. The term pinko entered the language in 1936, but the the word pink was used as early as 1837 to describe people whose views have a tendency toward red. to see pink elephants to experience delirium tremens (or hallucinate) because of over-consumption of alcohol. Jack London used this expression in a story in 1913. pink slip discharge notice. When the word was coined, employers often informed employees that theyd been terminated by placing a notice written on a pink sheet of paper in their final pay envelope. First recorded use 1915. pink collar blue collar job has long been understood to mean a job requiring work clothes as opposed to a white-collar job performed by office workers. In 1977 someone introduced the expression pink collar to refer to jobs held by women. Understandably and deservedly, it didnt catch on. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Regarding Re:How to Play HQ Words: Cheats, Tips and Tricks1,462 Basic Plot Types

Return on Expectation v Return on investment in Management Development Dissertation

Return on Expectation v Return on investment in Management Development Training - Dissertation Example The approach to address the demands of repeatability, rigor and uniqueness has two important features (McLinden & Trochim, 1998, p.1). Firstly it requires obtaining a preponderance of such evidences which demonstrates that expectations for the program impact originally leading towards the investments were met. Secondly it must also provide evidence with substantial methodological vigour for withstanding the scrutiny. In pursuing this approach, the evaluation paradigm is shifted to a ‘legal’ framework. Under the framework, if the conclusion arrived at is such that training adds value then the evidence used is required to be persuasive (McLinden & Trochim, 1998, p.1). This evidentiary standard is considered enough to reach a clear and reasonable conclusion regarding value of the program (McLinden & Trochim, 1998, p.1). ... ows that the program has achieved the three Cs, Correspondence Consistency Consensus (Wildermuth & Gray, 2005, p.66) Assessment of the value begins with the assessment of the outcomes that are expected from the program. Expectations might arise from the stakeholders who have different beliefs about the impacts of the programs (Wildermuth & Gray, 2005, p.66). The executives might be concerned about the strategic issues like the effectiveness of the programs during changes in market conditions, while those building the training modules would be concerned with the tactical details like whether group activities would be most effective in conveying the content (Wildermuth & Gray, 2005, p.66). The need for realising the expectations and measuring them was realised when trainers were unable to define the outcomes that stakeholders expected in measurable terms (Kirkpatrick, 2009, p.184). Given the multiple views which exists and differ from each other, defining values necessarily means popul ating the expectations of impacts with multiple perspectives. For the development of the training programs the multiple perspectives includes project managers, content experts, instructional designers and other stakeholders. Successful measurement of value includes integrating the diverse expectations into a single consensus about which the program seeks to achieve (McLinden & Trochim, 1998, p.2). On the other hand the Return on Investment (ROI) on training is considered to be primary tool for the forecasting and evaluation of the benefits of training programs and for conducting of the ROI analysis. The topic has emerged as the most popular concept in HRD conferences and other conventional agenda in organisations (Phillips, 2003, p.9). Pressure from the senior managers and clients has

Unit 1 Individual Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Unit 1 Individual Project - Essay Example E may look for to start a Greenfield project in Hungary as the subsequent analysis would suggest that the from the start of making its transition to the market economies, Hungary has been able to attract most of the FDI in the form of Greenfield projects. Hungary has gone through a very tough period of its economic history however the same is now seems to be paying of to the country. Hungary has traditionally remained an agriculturalist country with lot of reliance on the agriculture as the main deriver of the economic growth in the country. It has remained under the socialist school of government however is believed to be undertaking the reforms under the socialist era much before the other communist countries in the region. Due to its structural reforms and economic restructuring, Hungary has now being considered as surviving its bad patch and is now on the route of economic growth. As discussed above that the historically, Hungary has remained an agriculturalist country however after the World War II, it turn to the industrialization however most of the industrialization was state owned and most of the agriculture output was coming out of the state owned firms. Over the period of time Hungary has been able to attract more than 90% of all the foreign capital being invested in the Eastern Europe showing the strong trust of the foreign investors into strength of the country. Over the period from 1992 to 2005, the average GDP growth in the economy has remained well over 5% with drastic reduction in inflation and public debt. The economic model followed by Hungary is considered as the model for the transition economies as it is considered as one of the most successful transition model. On the whole, Hungary has the stable economic outlook as well as supporting government policies encouraging foreign direct investment as well as other means of entering into the Hungarian model. (EU Commission, 2006). Hungary has remained a communist nation with centralized and

Religious Freedom in Europe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 139

Religious Freedom in Europe - Essay Example The European law on freedom of religion or belief is guided by the inter-relatedness, interdependence, universality and indivisibility of all human rights whether social, political, civil or cultural rights. Freedom of religion is a fundamental human right that contributes to rule of law, democracy and peace. Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights provides that everyone has a right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion while Article 2 of Protocol No 1 to the convention grants parents the right to ensure the education of their children conforms to their own religious beliefs. Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) grants individuals the freedom of religion and thought including the freedom to adopt or leave a certain religion without any coercion. The freedom of religion is only subject to limitations that are prescribed in law for the purposes of ensuring public safety, order, morals and health or the protection of the fu ndamental rights of others. Article 26 of ICCPR requires non-discrimination on the basis of religion. Article 10 of European Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedom is aligned with the Convention and grants the parents the right to ensure the education of their children conforms to their own philosophical, pedagogical and religious convictions in accordance with the national laws that govern those freedoms. The Convention outlines that freedom of religion cannot be limited to the ‘main’ religions since all religious movements are granted equal protection according to the law. The issue of new religious groups that are sometimes referred as ‘sects’ arose in the case of Federation chretienne des temoins de Jehovah de France v. France, no. 53430/99, ECHR 2001- XI where the court noted that French legislation aimed at strengthening preventive and punitive  measures against sectarian movements thus infringing the fundamental human freedoms.   

Digital Marketing Campain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Digital Marketing Campain - Essay Example Several areas of digital marketing has been looked at including the general goals for the campaign, the target audience, key campaign message and offers, strategic plan and implementation time. Above all, it is strongly recommended that this document be accepted as a working paper as it has the key to ensuring that Central Station increase in revenue and by extension increase in development. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.0 Campaign goals and tracking. 1 1.1 General marketing aim of campaign and context The general aim of the program is to increase the reach out to customers by 40% in a year. The achievability of this goal lies in the sense that users of new media keep multiplying by the day and thus with digital marketing, the chances of increasing music artistes, especially up and coming ones coming to contact with the works of the company will be assured. 2 1.2 Product categories or services targeted Judging from the fact that the company is a media company and specifically a record label pr omotion company, the product and service categorization shall include the maximization of all components of digital marketing, which include banner advertising, search engine optimization (SEO) and pay per click services (Reitzin, 2007). 3 1.3 Sales and lead generation goals The sales of the company is sure to increase because lead generation features shall be created on the websites to allow accessibility of the company to reach as many people as possible. 10 2.0 Target audience, customer insight and targeting. As Miller (2010) notes, even with digital marketing, â€Å"the basic principles of marketing still apply: know your customer.† The first audience and customers shall be upcoming and existing musicians. As copyright laws ensure, a record label company cannot use the work of an artiste without the artiste’s due contingence (Gardner, 2003). The second target audience and customers shall be all music lovers and music users. This means that the core task and duty in record label marketing shall not be lost as Hutchison and Macy (2010) notes â€Å"Record Label Marketing offers a comprehensive look at the inner workings of record labels, showing how the record labels connect commercial music with consumers.† 11 3.0 Key campaign messages and offers 3.1 Fairness To a large extent, the digital marketing messaging shall portray and as a matter of applicability, ensure fairness for customers. Especially for music artistes, there shall be messaging that proof beyond every reasonable doubt that when decide to do business with the company and by extension allow the company to promote their music, they are going to have a fair deal when it comes to sharing of earnings. For music users, there shall also be special messaging on reduced cost of music use as compared to other companies would offer them. 3.2 Creativity The whole content of messaging shall be spiced with creative. This means that the appearance of all media of advertisement shall be bra nded with beauty and creativity. This shall be seen on websites, magazines and banners. There shall also be creativity with regards to accessibility of advertising media especially the use of internet based marketing media. 3.3 Inclusiveness Inclusiveness shall be trumpeted because it is an important offer for boosting customer growth (Ababio, 2003). The world over, economists and marketers have proved through

Serology International Employee Training Case Study

Serology International Employee Training - Case Study Example The human resource director, Dr. Tom Turblin has been assigned the role of selecting the most qualified employee to lead the new division that is going to be charged with the production of the kit. Dr. Tom will also be in charge of training him for the role. Dr. Tom decides that he will first begin with a re-evaluation of the academic qualification of all the employees that are employed by the firm. The exercise is going to be undertaken by an outsourced firm that deals with analysis and auditing. The exercise is going to cost Serology International around 60,000 US dollars. In addition, the outsourced auditing firm has notified Dr. Tom that the exercise will take three weeks. However, Dr. Tom wanted it completed as soon as possible, but he has already agreed to the deal. The firm identifies Scott Dickson as the most qualified employee. Thus, Dr. Tom decides to go through his file and record. He notes Scott has been the head of the Pipette production unit for the firm for a long time. His records show that in his tenure, there has been a considerable rate of return and innovation; hence paints him as an innovative individual. What about his leadership skills? After inquiring from the workers under his jurisdiction. They indicate that he is a leader who is always willing to listen and take part in the production stages. Moreover, he seeks to understand each employee on a personal level and gives credit where it is due. However, Scott has some shortcomings. One is that Scott has no prior experience in the production of DNA assessment kits. An aspect that worries Dr. Tom a lot. He has since decided to help him and work as his guide. His hope is that doing so will give Scott the confidence that is required to run the new division successfully. Scott is also be said to be high-tempered. He is emotional and has losses control easily.  

Accreditation Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Accreditation Analysis - Assignment Example The commission also works with institutions providing distance education programs. In contrast, the accrediting council for continuing education and training (ACCET) works with institutions that provide continuing education and vocational programs (ACCET, 2015). The institutions issue certificates or occupational associate degrees. The accreditation of technical training institutions is important because students are required to work in critical sectors such as construction and energy (Natarajan, 2000). In addition, it also caters for those who provide higher education services through distance education. The two accreditation bodies have been selected because they are both involved in regulating the education sector at the national level. The education sector is important because it is responsible for the creation of a skilled workforce. The private sector and other stakeholders are investing in addressing the educational challenges in the country. Consequently, the two organizations ensure that their interventions do not undermine the quality of education in the country. In addition, they ensure that institutions have rules that enhance the integrity of the learning process. For instance, schools are expected to have academic practices such as rules against plagiarism (Bretag, 2013). In addition, they should ensure that the students are aware of their academic and behavioral obligations (Mahmud & Bretag, 2013). The quality of education is important especially in critical industries such as healthcare. The patient outcomes are determined by the quality of training that the students have received at school (Alkheizenan &Shaw, 2011). ACCET accreditation is given to institutions that meet rigid criteria. Firstly, the institution must have a concise education program and methodology that would lead to expected training outcomes. The institution must also meet all the state licensing requirements. The

Serology International Employee Training Case Study

Serology International Employee Training - Case Study Example The human resource director, Dr. Tom Turblin has been assigned the role of selecting the most qualified employee to lead the new division that is going to be charged with the production of the kit. Dr. Tom will also be in charge of training him for the role. Dr. Tom decides that he will first begin with a re-evaluation of the academic qualification of all the employees that are employed by the firm. The exercise is going to be undertaken by an outsourced firm that deals with analysis and auditing. The exercise is going to cost Serology International around 60,000 US dollars. In addition, the outsourced auditing firm has notified Dr. Tom that the exercise will take three weeks. However, Dr. Tom wanted it completed as soon as possible, but he has already agreed to the deal. The firm identifies Scott Dickson as the most qualified employee. Thus, Dr. Tom decides to go through his file and record. He notes Scott has been the head of the Pipette production unit for the firm for a long time. His records show that in his tenure, there has been a considerable rate of return and innovation; hence paints him as an innovative individual. What about his leadership skills? After inquiring from the workers under his jurisdiction. They indicate that he is a leader who is always willing to listen and take part in the production stages. Moreover, he seeks to understand each employee on a personal level and gives credit where it is due. However, Scott has some shortcomings. One is that Scott has no prior experience in the production of DNA assessment kits. An aspect that worries Dr. Tom a lot. He has since decided to help him and work as his guide. His hope is that doing so will give Scott the confidence that is required to run the new division successfully. Scott is also be said to be high-tempered. He is emotional and has losses control easily.  

Personal Development Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personal Development Plan - Essay Example It contains details recommendations with regard to introduction that should be made in order to make the positive changes come true. This is particularly important since it shows that the two ethical theories that are being discussed can be effectively applied in practice making a person a better leader. For example, the call for not treating people as means, but only as end urges a leader to respect each of the followers and never allow one to become a faceless unit that is used to achieve a certain purpose. The idea of good will is linked to the idea of perspective and the ability of a leader to outline the development of the group and facilitate it. The text also features an outline for discussion regarding integration of the two theories in question into a personal leadership plan in order to achieve a stronger presence. Thus, the Categorical imperative will contribute to the ability of a leader to choose the right option all the time and Justice as Fairness approach will ensure the appreciation of the followers. It may be particularly important to explore the values and standards that reflect the meaning of each ethical theory. The first aspect that should be remembered with regard to Categorical imperative is the need treat people as ends and never as means (Cornman & Lehrer, 1968, p. 336). This reflects the universal appreciation of one’s significance and dignity and should be maintained by all the people. Another point that should be mentioned is the notion of good will (Paton, 1971, p. 201). This means that the consequences of the action may not fully define the nature of the action, but it is good will of the subject that also should be taken into account. Indeed, if a person performs action that is largely considered to be a moral one because of the reasons that are not considered to be moral, it is obvious that on the whole the action will not be recognized as a good one. Finally, one of

Lowering the Drinking Age in America Essay Example for Free

Lowering the Drinking Age in America Essay Being eighteen in the United States of America gives each citizen a newborn freedom. However when it comes to the consumption of alcohol, being eighteen restricts one from being allowed to legally buy, or consume alcohol. The most debatable topic a supporter of changing the drinking age would argue, is that if citizens are old enough to fight for our country, they should be able to purchase an alcoholic beverage. The consumption of alcohol age should be lowered to eighteen for economic purposes to benefit the nation, and the number of drunk driving accidents could decrease. Due to just some of these reasons, the legal drinking age should be lowered from twenty-one to eighteen. If one is recognized as a legal adult, with the ability to make decisions independently, the consumption of alcohol should be held to ones discretion. When one turns eighteen, there are many decisions that can be made, but alcohol is not one of them. The ingestion of alcoholic beverages should be at ones own pleasure. With every decision made in life there is a cause and effect; both can be either good or bad. Some privileges given to an eighteen year old American with the ability to encounter decisions to make independently include: the ability to vote, marry, smoke a cigarette (in most states), enlist in the military, give sexual consent, apply for a credit card, and buy a home. The same way the consent is given to engage in sexual intercourse, there is risk of getting pregnant. Every time cigarette is lit, the number of chances of getting lung cancer increase. Without self-control, a newly obtained credit card can instantly become maxed out (pros and cons. 2014, July 18). Although, if one practices moderation the consequences listed above can be preventable. Thus being the case, then why would it not be substantial to consume alcohol? The drinking age should not be postponed to the age of twenty-one solely because if an individual can make accountable decisions based on their own body, they should have the right to do so. From the early stages of our mental development, we are taught what is right and what is wrong. Being eighteen or twenty-one does not change the logic of drinking until the point of intoxication is not what is best for you. Whether you are eighteen or twenty-one, understanding that operating a vehicle, while intoxicated, is both a hazard to yourself and others on the road, the individual just needs to be responsible. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act, was enforced during FDRs presidency, is initiated by MADD, (Mothers Against Drunk Driving) to eliminate less mature eighteen year olds, from having alcohol in their possession. (Pros and cons. 2014, July 18). However, what many fail to realize is that before the MDAA was enacted, the number of drunk driving fatalities decreased among all age groups and demographics, leaving this Act irresponsible for the positive shift in society, in 1980. There were fewer drinking and driving fatalities worldwide in countries that do not prohibit eighteen year olds from consuming alcohol. In 1980, America had less drunk driving related fatalities than any other European country with legal drinking ages under twenty-one. (Pros and cons. 2014, July 18). If the United States lowers the drinking age to eighteen, the number of drunk driving fatalities could decrease just like Europe. Movements have been set forth to help politicians realize how beneficial changing the legal age would be. In 2008, college presidents launched the Amethyst initiative, which supports the idea of lowering the drinking age to promote moderation and reduce risks common for drinkers at a younger age. This initiative recognized drunk driving as a serious problem; however it is not the only danger targeting underage drinkers. They contend that by allowing colleges and universities to have alcohol openly available to all inhabitants of its campus, risk factors such as drinking-fueled violence, alcohol poisoning, and drunken injuries would be eliminated on campuses. Essentially, because the college and/or university would be able to educate their students on the dangers of consuming alcohol, now they could take part in the activity effectively. (Cary, Mary Kate.7 May 2014) Psychologically, lowering the drinking age would eliminate many rebellious individuals from seeking the consumption of illegal alcohol. Many people set  out to do things they know are not allowed, just for the fun of it. If eighteen year olds were allowed to drink, they would not be more likely to engage in the act or be able to put themselves in harms way. In todays society, underage drinking is understood as the norm; however, it is still frowned upon. Accidents caused by drinking, is what causes the downfall of a teens drinking experience, mainly due to the fact it is looked down upon. Whether the teen was sneaking around so the cops, or their parents, would not scold them for drinking, or their friend gets sick but does not want to get in trouble for having alcohol and let their friend die. More related incidents come because of avoiding the consequences of the law. If this law of the legal drinking age did not exist, then things would turn around for the better. For example, the first time a teen gets to experience their first drink, they are less inclined to practice moderation because they understand that it is not something they are allowed to do or can easily do often, causing the teen to risk alcohol poisoning. If the consequences of underage drinking could potentially lead to jail, human nature would trigger the individual to leave the scene of the accident before they are jeopardized too. If drinking were allowed and an eighteen year old just had too much to drink that night, then calling an ambulance and seeking medical attention would not be the last thing in that individuals mind because they would not fear their livelihood. Relating back to understanding what is right or wrong, self-preservation usually overrides doing what is better for someone else, rather than themselves. More harm has come from having the drinking age at twenty-one because alcohol is still going to be consumed whether it is legally or illegally. Raising the age of alcohol consumption has not eliminated underage drinking completely; in fact a majority of alcohol is consumed by underage drinkers. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse found that 17.5% of underage drinking accounts revenue was from underage buyers. Another study, completed in 2006 acknowledged that about 72.2% of twelfth graders in America admitted to having drunk alcohol. Since a large amount of alcohol is illegally obtained, the number of citizens complying with government regulations has declined. If anything, underage drinking has promoted the use of creating, selling and buying false identification. In todays society  where identity theft is a common concern and national security concerns are always in high alert due to illegal circulation of documents, in lieu of fraud, immigrations and terrorism, having fewer false identifications circulating throughout the United States would be safer for our nation and would show more respect for the law from its citizens (public health spot, 23,May 2014). Haste makes waste and what the government fails to realize is that aside from the perk of the well being of an eighteen year old drinker being increased, the economy can then benefit too. By changing the minimum legal drinking age to eighteen, more people would have access to legal alcohol, which would raise sales across the board. This would benefit small businesses, bars, restaurants, clubs and any other licensed establishment in the country. Also, more job opportunities will expand due to the increase in consumers, and the overall increase in demand. If alcohol sales increased, then the government would be able to collect larger amounts of tax revenue and greatly reduce spending on anti-alcohol campaigns. If so many positive outcomes could come from changing the legal drinking age from twenty-one to eighteen then why are the states not arguing to keep their legal drinking age at eighteen fighting back to regain their once acquired right? While it is indefinitely argued that state governments should have the right to establish their own legal drinking age, the federal government puts a hold on the states economy by allowing the age to be changed. The federal government threatened to withhold 10% of highway funding from any state that resisted complying with the act. Yet again, the federal government took a step forward and pressured their choice on states decisions regarding monetary affairs, forcing the states to choose from losing millions in annual highway funds or keeping their minimum legal drinking age at eighteen (Pros and cons, 2014. July18). We see there are many legal, psychological, economic and moral prospective points that benefit the drinking age to be lowered to eighteen. Changing the national drinking age to 18 will secure safety among teens across the nation, assist the economy, and act on promoting alcohol moderation by  having it obtainable by those who choose to drink. References ProCon.org. (2014, July 18). _Minimum Legal Drinking Age_ http://drinkingage.procon.org/ Cary, Mary Kate. Lower the U.S. Drinking Age. _US News_. U.S.News World Report, 7 May 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. Public Health Spotlight. _Vermont Department of Health_. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014. Selective Service System: Welcome. _Selective Service System: Welcome_. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014. U.S. Office of Personnel Management Www.OPM.gov. _U.S. Office of Personnel Management_. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014. 2014 Stop Underage Drinking: Portal of Federal Resources. _2014 Stop Underage Drinking: Portal of Federal Resources_. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014. Protecting Youth. _Protecting Youth_. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014. 2014 Stop Underage Drinking: Portal of Federal Resources. _2014 Stop Underage Drinking: Portal of Federal Resources_. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014. Accessibility Information. _Programs_. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014.

Attitudes to Risk and Entrepreneurship

Attitudes to Risk and Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship, as defined by Stevenson (1983) â€Å"†¦ is the pursuit of opportunity beyond the resources you currently control†. Stevenson and Gumpert (1985, pp. 85-94) advise that the preceding definition represents both the individual as well as the society that he or she is embedded in as he or she identifies an opportunity they desire to pursue, and as an entrepreneur they thus must seek the resources from the broader society. The approach to entrepreneurship as voiced by Stevenson and Gumpert (1985, pp. 85-94) builds upon earlier scholars such as Schumpeter (1934) who identified the context of the interaction of the individual and wider society. The title of Schumpeter’s (1934) work â€Å"The Theory of Economic Development† could almost be suited to a title for entrepreneurship, as Harper (2003, p. 1) advises that one of the prominent features â€Å"†¦ of a competitive enterprise economy is the ability of people continually to seek out and seize opportunities for profitable new activities in local and world markets†. That statement mirrors the definition of entrepreneurship as put forth by Stevenson and Gumpert (1985, pp. 85-94). French economist Say, around 1800 stated that the entrepreneur â€Å"†¦shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield† (Dracker, 1985, p. 21). However, starting a new venture does not necessarily constitute entrepreneurship, and is not limited to new and or small businesses. Dracker (1985, p. 22) advises that entrepreneurship is indeed being practiced by all sizes of companies and corporations, and said activity represents the creation of something new, or different, and or the change / transmutation of value. As such, Dracker (1985, pp. 21) cites McDonald’s, which is an example of entrepreneurship. And while its product did not represent anything new, the management concepts, techniques, standardization of the product, the process of designing systems and tools, the understanding of the work that needed to be done, and devising working and training techniques to transmit this to others is what defines it as being entrepreneurial (Dracker, 1985, p.21). He also uses General Electric as an example in that the company’sâ€Å"†¦ long history of starting new entrepreneurial businesses from scratch, and raising them into sizable industries† is another example of this process (Dracker, 1985, p. 23), as well as Marks and Spencer of the United Kingdom. Sheller (2006) advises that â€Å"Entrepreneurship is a delicate organism†, continuing that â€Å"It needs the right environment to flourish†. Welsh (2003, p. 4) elaborates on Sheller’s (2006) view by stating: 1. Entrepreneurship flourishes in communities where resources are mobile, 2. Entrepreneurship is greater when successful members of a community reinvest excess capital in the projects of other community members, 3. Entrepreneurship flourishes in communities in which the success of other community members is celebrated rather than derided, and 4. Entrepreneurship is greater in communities that see change as positive rather than negative.† Given the risk taking nature of entrepreneurs, an examination of the context of this word is deemed as an important consideration before delving into the examination of the attitudes to risk and entrepreneurship. Inherent in the analysis of an entrepreneurial environment is risk, but, as stated by Culp (2001. 3) â€Å"Risk is everywhere†. Burt (2001) advises that â€Å"risk is the probability that an event will occur† and is â€Å"†¦ often used to express the probability that particular outcome will happen following a particular exposure† and also denotes the probability, or possibility of a loss. However, there are differing views and attitudes regarding risk, just as there are regarding entrepreneurship. These facets shall be examined herein, equating the various attitudes and approaches to these two areas. Chapter 1 – Introduction Implicit in understanding the context of attitudes to risk and entrepreneurship, are the words that constitute this examination. The simplistic nature of the statement belies the striations inherent in the different contexts. Follendore (2002) in commenting on that fact that words carry meaning, also states that words also can limit potential meanings. As shown by the preceding brief exploration of entrepreneurship and risk, these words have a broader dimension that one usually associates with them in general conversation, and or use. Termed linguistics, the meaning of words represents the context in which they are used in combination with other words and permits us to communicate with one another (Hill, 1969, p. 3). The character of the word stock of English has its roots in the Germanic tribes of the preromantic era and consists of French, Italian and other languages that have been incorporated into the body of words utilized by English speakers (Leith, 1997, p. 62). The foregoing is important in understanding that the word dictionary is 1. â€Å"A reference book containing an alphabetical list of words, with information given for each word †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that 3. Lists â€Å"†¦words or other linguistics items in a particular category †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Houghton Mifflin, 2007). Its etymology stems from Medieval Latin dictinrium, and from Latin diction, which is a derivative of diction (Houghton Mifflin, 2007). The weakness of the English language lies in its lexical ambiguity. Lin and Ahrens (2001) provide a further understanding of the importance of words that in most instances have multiple meanings, thus the phrase lexical ambiguity. They go on to add that â€Å"†¦ multiple meanings associated with †¦ (words) †¦ can be etymologically associated†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The words utilized in the title of this examination fall into the category of words that have â€Å"†¦ greater number of meanings †¦Ã¢â‚¬  thus they are â€Å"†¦ recognized faster than words with few meanings† (Lin and Ahrens, 2001). Dictionary meanings, as stated by Lin and Ahrens (2001) are the form that is usually preferred by researchers as a result of their having standardized meanings â€Å"†¦ comprehensive, and easy to obtain†. However, semantically speaking, the meaning of the words attitudes, risk and entrepreneurship change depending upon the context, thus variables are added as a result of using these words in combination, further compounding the equation. As borne out by the limited exploration of meanings for entrepreurship and risk. Thus in exploring the attitudes to the preceding, this examination shall explore these combinations and seek to find common linkages to result in an understanding of the foregoing. Chapter 2 – Attitude The context of this examination, which represents an exploration into the ‘Attitudes to risk and entrepreneurship’, embodies looking at the relationships of these words to define the phrase and bring out its meanings. It is the context in which these words reside, as well as the implications thus resulting, represent the underlying precepts that provide for a broad field of interpretations and thus variants. In beginning with the word ‘attitudes’, Houghton Mifflin (2007) defines its â€Å"1. A position of the body or manner of carrying oneself, 2. a. Astute of mind or a feeling; disposition, 2. b. An arrogant or hostile state of mind or disposition, 3. The orientation of an air or spacecraft relative to a reference †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Its etymology is French, from the Italian word ‘attitudinal, which was adopted from late Latin‘aptitd’ (Houghton Mifflin, 2007). Schneider (2006) advises that the word ‘attitudes’ consists of two components. One represents belief, and the other represents feeling (Schneider, 2006). Beliefs are a mental concept association that are usually â€Å"†¦ associated with an identity †¦ and as Dr. Schneider (2006) states, â€Å"†¦ are often stereotypical†. He continues that these stereotypical beliefs are usually stemmed in the â€Å"†¦ socio demographic differences of a person †¦ (as well as their) †¦ personal experience†. Thus, based upon the context as well as usage, ‘attitudes’ brings with it the usage context as formulated within an individual’s historical framework as well. These historical preconceptions, however slight, represent influencing factors acting upon the individual as they mentally traverse through their personal feelings, and beliefs regarding the word sets that follow, thus triggering other memory concepts, feelings and beliefs. Schneider (2006), refers to Sheriff in discussing ‘norm formation which represents the prevailing understanding(s) associated with a particular word in contemporary common usage. We as individuals have grown through experiences, associations, and circumstances in our environments as impacted upon by family, friends, acquaintances, and our abilities to cope, to develop personalities as well as thinking patterns that are the outgrowth of these variables. We see the environment, filter out what isn’t relevant, evaluate what remains, then process this information through our individual self-images â€Å"†¦ and / or sets of expectations, and /or personal characteristics, motivational factors and life experiences †¦and then we respond with either â€Å"†¦ reflective or spontaneous behaviour†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Rice University, 2003). The preceding would appear in a diagram as follows: Figure 1 – Individual Environmental Perceptions (Rice University, 2003) The next step in the process is the examination of individualbehavior in the context of two individuals as an interaction. Such can consist of one of three types of interactions, as represented by superior to subordinate, leader to peers, and leader to boss (Rice University, 2003). The importance of these distinctions is that such interactions often tend to influence, impact, change, and or colour person’s perceptions, and or processing thus causing them to arrive at differing conceptualizations. Figure 2 – Individual Environmental Perceptions in a Two Party Relationship (Rice University, 2003) Under Figure 2, it illustrates the interactive effects of environmental perceptions in a two-party relationship, and how the images of Individual A can impact upon the perceptions of Individual B. Another facet of how external influences can impact upon an individual’s thinking has been put forward by Janis (1972, pp. 15-30) who states that groupthink is the psychological drive for consensus at any costs which suppresses disagreement, and thus prevents the appraisal of potential alternatives in decision making groups. Thus, an individual in a bank will have a completely different set of mental references that will occur when he or she hears the word risk, than will an entrepreneur. In a limited and distant way, the preceding represents a variant of groupthink, or the thinking adopted by an individual as represented by being part of a group or enterprise. The symptoms can be mild to strong based upon the degree of adaptation, position and or other factors, and can fall into any of the following categorizations (Janis, 1972, pp. 174-195, 242-258): 1. Negative Outcomes The examination of only a few alternatives, Not being critical of the ideas of others, Failure to examine alternatives early, Failure to seek expert opinion, Being very selective in terms of gathering information, Failure to have contingency plans, 2. Symptoms An illusion of invulnerability, The rationalization of poor decisions, A belief in the morality of the group, The sharing of stereotypes that guide the decision process, The exercising of direct pressure on others, Failure to express true feelings, The maintenance of the illusion of unanimity, The use of what are termed mind guards to protect others in the group from receiving or evaluating negative information 3. Solutions The utilization of a policy forming group that thus reports to a larger group, thus forcing or bringing wider thinking latitudes into the equation, Having the leaders remain impartial, The utilization of differing policy groups to accomplish different tasks, The division of individuals into groups and then a discussion on differences to open up potential alternatives and additional thinking, Having discussions in sub groups that report back, The utilization of a Devil’s advocate to call into question all of the ideas raised by the group, Holding second meetings to provide another opportunity for other courses of action The idea of the preceding is to help minimize preconceived notions, ideas, and approaches to open them up to a broader field of discussion, ideas, alternatives, and possibilities. The foregoing is applied in individual situations by the individual taking the time for reflective thinking away for the instant pressures of now or of another’s influence. Chapter 3 Risk The Houghton Mifflin (2007) dictionary defines risk as â€Å" 1. The possibility of suffering harm or loss; danger, 2. A factor, thing, element, or course involving uncertain danger; a hazard †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . It, risk, represents a concept that carries with it the potential for a negative outcome or less that desired outcome that can potentially arise from a specific, desired or combination of actions in the present or sometime in the future (Douglas, 1992, pp. 102-105). Viscose (1998, p. 5)advises that â€Å"Individual risk perceptions are often in error †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ,explaining that â€Å"†¦ people make mistakes with respect to how they perceive risk and behave in the presence of uncertainty†. Douglas(1992, p. 102) states that it has been a long held belief that individuals are risk averse, which is based upon â€Å"†¦ the theory of rationale choice †¦ (that) †¦ assumes that the individual will always choose according to his own self-interest †¦Ã¢ €  which are choices, thus a factor of rational behaviour. Adams (1995, p. 1) simplifies the understanding of risk by personalizing it in order for us to gain aclearer perspective. He states that each and every one of us is â€Å"†¦ a true risk expert †¦Ã¢â‚¬  in that â€Å"†¦ we have been trained by practice and experience in the management of risk† (Adams, 1995, p. 1). Risk represents something that we as human being learn in infancy, starting with our trial and error processes representing learning how to crawl, walk, and then talk (Adams, 1995, p. 1). He adds to Douglas’ (1992, p.102) statement that individuals are risk averse as he points out the example of that although we as child tend to act out of â€Å"†¦ curiosity and a need for excitement †¦ (we are ) †¦ curbed by †¦ â€Å" our sense of danger (Adams, 1995, p. 1). The importance of investigating the components and foundations of risk as a part of the equation of this examination is crucial to the examination of attitudes, risk and entrepreneurship in that one needs the foundation of the theories, and usages attributed to these words and concepts. Risk, as a function of perceived uncertainty and dangerous also subject to prevailing public views, experience factors and acceptance. By any account, taking a flight in a piece of metal whose outer skin is thin, with the entire container flexing while one travels at speeds in excess of 400 km would not only sound risky to those born in ancient Rome, it would be viewed as insane. Thus risk is a changing variable based upon our degrees of exposure, the exposure of others, and its place in what we subscribe to as normal routines. Risk taking for one used to making investments, such as a financier, stock trader or venture capitalist, whose circle of acquaintances, friends, upbringing, and experiences is less than it is for a doctor, lawyer, cab driver or railroad engineer, as they lack the exposure, and mental familiarity that underpins uncertainty, and how to deal with it. The foregoing represents the third of Starr’s (1969, pp. 1234) three laws describing behavioural phenomena â€Å"†¦ 3. The acceptable level of risk is inversely related to the number of persons exposed to that risk†. The other two segments of this law are (1969, p. 1238): â€Å"1. The public is willing to accept voluntary risks about 1,000 times greater than involuntary risks. 2. The acceptability of risks appears to be roughly proportional to the third power of the benefits† Starr’s (1969, p. 1238) three putative laws however have not gained wide spread acceptance with risk specialists on all grounds, however there are those who agree with his assertion that there is a relationship between risk acceptability ad benefits. Otway and Chen(1975, pp. 76-80) however found that through a replication of the analysis that the resulting data did not support Starr’s (1969, p.1238) assertion in qualitative formulations, and instead found that individuals were indeed willing to accept high involuntary risks with large benefits. Despite the findings of Otway and Chen (1975, pp.76-80) the jury is still out regarding Starr’s (1969, p. 1238) three putative laws. And while we have been discussing risk as on an individual basis, risk exists in all forms, thus the exploration of it in institutions also has relevance as it is still a human facet. Culp (2001, p. 15) advises that we find it â€Å"†¦ tempting to associate definition of risk with measures of risk, such as the variance of returns on some asset† or in order mathematical means. Culp (2001, p.15) asserts that risk can be shown through mathematical formulas to that†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ make sense in illustrative purposes†, adding that â€Å"Risk is concept, not a particular statistical construct†. In further exploring risk, Culp (2001, p. 15) adds that attempting to glean an understanding of risk â€Å"†¦ at the conceptual level †¦Ã¢â‚¬  is a daunting task. He states that there is a tendency to use terms such as interest rate risk, maturity, accident, credit and so forth, which have their applications, and adds that the conceptualization of the â€Å"†¦ definition of risk varies with the perspective† (Culp, 2001, p. 15). Thus, he offers perspectives on how risk can be defined, and the relationships between them. Firstly, Culp (2001, p. 15) offers what he terms the â€Å"event-driven definition of risk† which works on the principle of â€Å"†¦ the type of event that can result in a loss†, such as a flood or earthquake. The second type of risk Culp (2001, p. 16) defines is ‘market risk’ thatâ€Å"†¦ arises from the event of a change in some market determined asset price, reference rate or index†. He explains that ‘delta represents the value that is the â€Å"exposure that deteriorates as a result of the price, or value of some risk factor changes†, with â€Å"‘gamma’ as the risk that delta will change when the value of an underlying risk factor changes â€Å"and ‘rho as the â€Å"risk that the interest rates used to discount future cash flows in present value calculations will change and impose unexpected losses on the firm (Culp, 2001, p. 17). Culp (2001, p. 18)defines ‘liquid risk’ as that which †Å"occurs in the event that cash flows, and current balances are insufficient to cover cash outflow requirements†, and ‘credit risk’. The other types of risk Culp (2001,pp. 18-22) defines are ‘operational risk’, and ‘legal risk’, with other risks representing a broad array of items such as intellectual risk, customer loss risk, and supply chain risks as a few examples. In equating risk with the subject of this examination, risk aversion represents the division of risk that is associated with individuals. Culp (2001, p. 34) refers to this as â€Å"†¦. the shape of a utility function dictating the degree to which an individual is risk-averse, risk-neutral, or risk-loving†. Barrett (1993, p. 2) states that inside of these risk categories is what he terms the ‘disaster threshold ‘whereby one engages in behaviour that includes risk only when it does not touch their threshold of misfortune beyond which they will not goes such would †Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ be experienced as a disaster†. He adds that when individuals have a preference for â€Å"†¦ risk-aversion †¦ (it) †¦ displaces the preference for rational decision making† (Barrett, 1993, p. 79).Under this type of thinking the rule is â€Å"†¦ to take as few risks as incompatible with the perception of opportunities, and to expect corresponding attitude i n others† (Barrett, 1993, p. 79). Lane and Cheek (2000) conducted a study on risk-aversion examining theâ€Å"†¦ role of contingencies and experimental context in human decision-making†. They subjected twelve individuals to â€Å"†¦ a series of conditions that provided response alternatives of a small, high-probability reinforce (non-risky alternative), or a larger, low probability reinforce (risky alternative)†. The range of therein forcer probabilities and amounts were utilized via a discrete trial design that had repeated trials conducted in multiple sessions. In comparing the results with prior data it was found that the subjects in the study â€Å"†¦ displayed a strong preference for the non-risky response alternative, even when doing so resulted in lost earnings† (Lane and Cheek, 2000). These results support decision, and risk models that emphasize the subjective as opposed to mathematically expected value of reinforces, and â€Å"†¦ the data highlight the important role of reinforcement contingencies, and context in risk-taking behaviour† (Lane and Cheek, 2000). Risk, as explained by Adams (1995), Viscose (1998),Douglas (1992), Starr (1969), and others is inherent in any choice that involves probabilistic outcomes. Lane and Cheek (2000) found that inâ€Å"†¦ contexts with two or more response alternatives, both the probability, and size of each alternative presumably influence decisions†. Lawrence (1992) concurs with Lane and Cheek (2000) in that the choice of decision making that occurs under uncertainty usually includes options of selecting, and or choosing to use an informational system, and a set of probable messages that take in current decisions. Under this type of thinking the rule is â€Å"†¦ to take as few risks as incompatible with the perception of opportunities, and to expect corresponding attitude in others† Barrett (1993, p. 79) whereby the taking of as few risks as possible is the preference in compatibility with opportunity perception, and the corresponding attitude of others. Hahnemann and Tversky (1979, pp. 341-350), Silberberg et al (1988, pp.187-195), and Slavic and Lichtenstein (1968, pp. 1-17) all conducted studies in risk aversion, and noted the tendency toward a mild approaching conditions as represented by gain versus no-gain. Hahnemann andTversky (1979, pp. 341-350) found that under some conditionsâ€Å"†¦equivalent outcomes with real, and hypothetical outcomes, but results from other studies are not so straightforward, and suggest that there may be differences in subjects’ decision making when real payoff contingencies are implemented†. Slavic (1969) found â€Å"†¦ when choices were hypothetical, subjects maximized gains and discounted the probability of loss, but were more risk averse under conditions in which they actually played out their choices†. In equating risk as a variable of simply participating as opposed to gain and or loss Reuchlin and Frankel (1969, pp. 444-449) found that in the utilization of gambling situations that contained no payoffs, the individuals involved in the study were indifferent to the response they selected, but when the probabilities of winning, and losing were introduced whereby monetary gains, and or losses were involved, they were real sensitive to the choices made. The understanding of why people make decisions in situations whereby an alternative is the better choice based upon some attributes of values and in others the alternative is better based upon some other attribute represents a problem of preferential choice, and judgment in psychology. Castellan (1993, p. 20) advises that in general, when people are â€Å"†¦faced with more complex decision problems involving many alternatives, people often adopt simplifying strategies that are much more selective in the use of information†. He continues thatâ€Å"†¦strategies adopted tend to be non-compensatory, in that excellent values on some attributes cannot compensate for poor values on other attributes† (Castellan, 1993, p. 20). He elaborates on the foregoing by making reference to a number of job applicants with basically the same qualifications, however, the interviewer might decide that a published article background is a determining factor which he utilizes to aid in the decision process. The preceding represents a simplification strategy for getting through, and or making a decision, which is termed heuristics for choice, which can change based upon the conditions. Tversky ( 1972, pp. 281-299) referred to such a strategy as an elimination-by-aspects process. Heuristics such as the equal weighting rule, majority of confirming dimensions, and lexicographic represent differing methods for simplifying processing in the making of choices(Castellan, 1993, p. 20). The preceding represents a factor of risk as individuals work through their own history and experience base as well as any applicable organizational or society rules in reaching a risk based decision. The equal weighting strategy simplifies the decision making process by virtue of ignoring information concerning the relative importance of each attribute (Castellan, 1993, p. 21). In the confirming decisions heuristic, the general process entails the processing of pairs of alternatives whereby â€Å"†¦values for each of the two alternatives are compared on each attribute, and the alternative with a majority of winning (better) attribute values is retained †¦.† (Castellan, 1993, p.21). In this manner â€Å"†¦processing is simplified by requiring only ordinal judgments of which alternative is better on an attribute, rather than assessments of the degree to which one alternative is better than the other †¦ (thereby the) †¦ process of pairwise comparison is repeated until all alternatives have been evaluated, and the final winning alternative identified† (Castellan, 1993, p. 21). In the final heuristic, lexicographic choice works by â€Å"†¦first determining the most important attribute, and then examining the values of all alternatives on that attribute. The alternative with the best value on the most important attribute is selected† (Castellan, 1993, p. 21). In cases of ties, the second most important attribute is considered and the process repeated until the decision making tie is eliminated. The foregoing are aspects in risk decision making that some individuals use in arriving at their choices, and are usually reserved for more long term risk analysis decision making such as investment, business decisions, long term purchases of higher monetary value and so forth. These types of risk taking processes are also associated with entrepreneurs. Chapter 4 – Entrepreneurship The Houghton Mifflin dictionary (2007) defines entrepreneur as â€Å"Adperson who organizes, operates and assumes the risk for a business venture†. An entrepreneur represents an individual who is usually of high aptitude, who possesses certain characteristics that are found in only a small portion of people in general, who pioneers change(Quick MBA, 2007). The more popular definition that is thought of by society when this word is mentioned, is of a person who wants to work for themselves. The origin of entrepreneur is French, based on the word ‘entreprendre, which means ‘to undertake’. Entrepreneurship represents the practice of beginning new companies, and or organizations as usually represented by a new business as a result of new opportunities that have, or are presenting themselves. Such naturally entails elements of risk. The equation of risk in entrepreneurship is represented by the spectre of failure, which can beat result of a multitude of business, supply, sales, market condition, financing, timing, competitive, new innovations, cost, locale, another problems that are all interweaved to result in a complex series of risks that must be examined, explored, decided upon, and dealt with correctly to minimize failure, which does not necessarily translate into success. Stevenson (1983), as previously referred to, describes entrepreneurship represents â€Å"†¦ the pursuit of opportunity beyond the resources you currently control†, which he further amplifies with Gumpert (Stevenson and Gumpert, 1985, pp. 85-94) that entrepreneurship represents both the individual as well as the society that he or she is embedded in as he or she identifies an opportunity they desire to pursue and as an entrepreneur they thus must seek the resources from the broader society. Given all of the research, and studies devoted to entrepreneurship no universal theory has been generated, as various disciplines have their â€Å"†¦own unique way of viewing entrepreneurship which remains relatively unaffected by the perspectives of other disciplines †¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Gartner, 2001). All of the foregoing have been engaged in as a part of the purpose of this study, which is to equate attitudes toward risk and entrepreneurship. The three critical words that comprise this examination have extremely broad interpretations as well as context that are dependent upon when, and how they are used. For Dracker (1985,p. 28) entrepreneurship is about risk. But his view does not take the skew of said risk being negative or positive, but rather that risk is inherent with the concept as it, risk, is inherent with business in general, simply that entrepreneurial risk is a different form. Thus, the attitudes concerning risk and entrepreneurship are individual and dependent upon the prevailing social circle, or societal views that can take on any the differing contextual concepts of any of the words in arriving at a mental conceptualization of what these words mean in combination. He describes entrepreneurship as â€Å"†¦ ‘risky’ mainly because so few of the so-called entrepreneurs know what they are doing(Dracker, 1985, p. 29). And continues that they â€Å"†¦ lack the methodology†¦ (and) †¦violate elementary and well known rules (Dracker, 1985, p.29). Thus Dracker (1985) is seemingly saying that the high degree of complexity inherent in entrepreneurship, as either demands or requires an individual who is usually of high aptitude, who possess certain characteristics that are found in only a small portion of people in general, who pioneers change (, 2007). The attention being devoted to an examination of entrepreurship is deemed as an important part of the risk attitude equation in that like risk, and attitude, it, entrepreurship, entails a large number of variants in how they are viewed contextually. Dracker (1985, p. 30) aids in providing clarity by advising that entrepreneurship requires innovation, as it â€Å"†¦ is the specific instrument †¦Ã¢â‚¬  of the process. It represents the factor â€Å"†¦that endows resources with a new capacity to create wealth †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dracker, 1985, p. 30). He explains that innovationâ€Å"†¦ creates a resource †¦Ã¢â‚¬  and that a resource represents something that has no value until a need, and use is found for it, and thus endows it with an economic value (Dracker, 1985, p. 30). To illustrate, he points to various plants, rock, and minerals that went unused for centuries until a use were found for them. Owing to this view, Dracker (1985, p.33) advises that innovation represents an economic term, in this context, as opposed to a social or technical one. He adds that it, innovation, â€Å"†¦can be defined the way J. B. Say defined entrepreneurship, as changing the yield of resources † as well as being â€Å"†¦ defined in demand terms rather than in supply terms, that is, as changing the value and satisfaction obtained from resources by the consumer †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dracker, 1985, p. 33). Francis and Demirep (2006) address the issue of entrepreneurship in the context of â€Å"Wealth, Entrepreneurship and Occupational Experience â€Å"citing that as a factor of the probability of becoming an entrepreneur, one is likely to be male, a member of the Caucasian race, in the upper middle age bracket, and married. They cite that the theoretical aspects of the preceding profile represent facets such as risk aversion, along with entrepreneurial ability, as mentioned by Dracker (1985, p. 30) â€Å"†¦and the desire to be one’s own boss† (